Applicability of Motor Assessments in Monitoring Physical Exercise Outcomes in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Scoping Review
Volume 16, Issue 2 (2026)
Volume 16, Issue 2 (2026)
Applicability of Motor Assessments in Monitoring Physical Exercise Outcomes in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Scoping Review
Apstrakt:
A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior as well as difficulties in communication and social interaction is defined as Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). The specific characteristics observed in children with ASD require carefully selected and methodologically justified instruments for the assessment of motor competence, i.e. the assessment of motor skills and physical abilities. The aim of this study is to broadly examine the application of test procedures (instruments) used by researchers in studies in which physical activity intervention is applied in children with ASD and to analyze the methodological justification of their choice. This scoping review was conducted following a systematic search strategy in accordance with the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews guidelines. Based on the literature search and eligibility criteria, 34 papers were included in the final qualitative synthesis. The reviewed literature reveals considerable heterogeneity in the selection of instruments, with the most frequently used being the Test of Gross Motor Development-2/3, the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2. These instruments primarily asess motor skills, although many studies also include additional measures of physical abilities for which the authors do not provide clear references regarding their source or origin, representing a methodological limitation. This review highlights the need for the development of standardized instruments that assess both motor skills and physical abilities while accounting for the unique cognitive and social characteristics of children with ASD and varying levels of support needs.
Ključne riječi:
Motor competence, Motor skills, Assessment tools, Physical activity interventions, Neurodevelopmental disorder
Puni tekst:
Reference:
Acar, G., Erol, E., & Cimen, K. (2025). Parallels between motor skill development and language development in children. International Journal of Holistic Health, Sports and Recreation, 4(1), 23-36. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15762971 American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). American Psychiatric Association. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. Arabi, M., Saberi Kakhki, A., Sohrabi, M., Soltani Kouhbanani, S., & Jabbari Nooghabi, M. (2019). Is visuomotor training an effective intervention for children with autism spectrum disorders? Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 3089-3102. https://doi.org/10.2147/ NDT.S214991 Arabi, S. M., & Saberi Kakhki, A. (2025). Comparing the effects of fine, gross and fine-gross motor exercises on the motor competence of 6–12-year-old autistic children: A quasi-experimental study with a follow-up test. Acta Psychologica, 254, 104842. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104842 Arslan, E., Ince, G., & Akyüz, M. (2022). Effects of a 12-week structured circuit exercise program on physical fitness levels of children with autism spectrum condition and typically developing children. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 68(4), 500-510. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2020.1819943 Battah, H. W., Lotan, M., & Moran, D. S. (2023). The need for a motor assessment tool for children with autism: An opinion article. Diagnostics, 13(12), 2095. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13122095 Bo, J., Pang, Y., Dong, L., Xing, Y., Xiang, Y., Zhang, M., et al.. (2019). Does social functioning moderate the motor outcomes of a physical activity program for children with autism spectrum disorders? A pilot study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(1), 415–421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3717-4 Bruininks, R. H., & Bruininks, B. D. (2005). Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency (2nd ed.). Pearson. Casey, A. F., Quenneville-Himbeault, G., Normore, A., Davis, H., & Martell, S. G. (2015). A therapeutic skating intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatric Physical Therapy, 27(2), 170-177. https://doi.org/10.1097/PEP.0000000000000139 Castaño, P. R. L., Suárez, D. P. M., González, E. R., et al.. (2024). Effects of physical exercise on gross motor skills in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54, 2816-2825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06031-5 Chiva-Bartoll, O., Maravé-Vivas, M., Salvador-García, C., & Valverde-Esteve, T. (2021). Impact of a physical education service-learning programme on ASD children: A mixed-methods approach. Children and Youth Services Review, 126, 106008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. childyouth.2021.106008 Clutterbuck, G. L., Ho, C., & Dwyer, G. M. (2025). The feasibility and reliability of the test of gross motor development (TGMD-3) for children with disabilities in regional Australia: A pragmatic pilot study. Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, 45(4), 572–593. https://doi.org/10.1080/01942638.2025.2463350 Council of Europe. (1988). Eurofit: Handbook for the EUROFIT tests of physical fitness. Council of Europe. Downs, S. J., Boddy, L. M., McGrane, B., Rudd, J. R., Melville, C. A., & Foweather, L. (2020). Motor competence assessments for children with intellectual disabilities and/or autism: A systematic review. BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1136/ bmjsem-2020-000902 Gaber, S. A., Alzahrani, A. S., Dawsari, I. A., Hamad, A. M., & Alhajri, A. S. (2025). Developing gross and fine motor skills using sensory integration in children with moderate autism spectrum disorder. European Journal of Educational Research, 14(1), 297–308. https:// doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.14.1.297 Gehricke, J. G., Chan, J., Farmer, J. G., Fenning, R. M., Steinberg-Epstein, R., Misra, M., Parker, R. A., & Neumeyer, A. M. (2020). Physical activity rates in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder compared to the general population. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 70, 101490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101490 Hartley, C., Trainer, A., & Allen, M. (2019). Investigating the relationship between language and picture understanding in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 23(1), 187-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361317729613 Henderson, H., Fuller, A., Noren, S., Stout, V. M., & Williams, D. (2016). The effects of a physical education program on the motor skill performance of children with autism spectrum disorder. Palaestra, 30(3). Henderson, S. E., Sugden, D. A., & Barnett, A. L. (2007). Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (2nd ed.). The Psychological Corporation. Imai, Y., Naruse, H., Kurita, R., Hiratani, M., & Tomori, K. (2023). A hybrid intervention combining group-based physical activity and an individual goal-oriented approach for children with developmental disabilities: A pre–post intervention study. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 70(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2020.1856793 Jia, W., & Xie, J. (2021). Improvement of the health of people with autism spectrum disorder by exercise. Revista Brasileira de Medicina do Esporte, 27(3), 282-285. https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-8692202127032021_0081 Kanzari, C., Hawani, A., Ayed, K. B., Mrayeh, M., Marsigliante, S., & Muscella, A. (2025). The impact of a music- and movement-based intervention on motor competence, social engagement, and behavior in children with autism spectrum disorder. Children, 12(1), 87.https://doi.org/10.3390/children12010087 Kaplánová, A., Šišková, N., Grznárová, T., & Vanderka, M. (2023). Physical education and development of locomotion and gross motor skills of children with autism spectrum disorder. Sustainability, 15(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010028 Ketcheson, L., Hauck, J., & Ulrich, D. (2017). The effects of an early motor skill intervention on motor skills, levels of physical activity and socialization in young children with autism spectrum disorder: A pilot study. Autism, 21(4), 481-492. https://doi. org/10.1177/1362361316650611 Ketcheson, L., Staples, K., Pitchford, E. A., & Loetzner, F. (2023). Promoting positive health outcomes in an urban community-based physical activity intervention for preschool-aged children on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53, 633–647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04871-7 Kodak, T., & Bergmann, S. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder: Characteristics, associated behaviors, and early intervention. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 67(3), 525-535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2020.02.007 Kozlowski, K. F., Lopata, C., Donnelly, J. P., Thomeer, M. L., Rodgers, J. D., & Seymour, C. (2021). Feasibility and associated physical performance outcomes of a high-intensity exercise program for children with autism. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 92(3), 289-300. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2020.1726272 Lin, L. Y., Hwang, I. T., Hsu, C. F., Yu, W. H., Lai, P. C., Chen, Y. W., & Tu, Y. F. (2024). Comparing fine motor performance among young children with autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 12, 1372980. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2024.1372980 Marzouki, H., Soussi, B., Selmi, O., Hajji, Y., Marsigliante, S., Bouhlel, E., Muscella, A., Weiss, K., & Knechtle, B. (2022). Effects of aquatic training in children with autism spectrum disorder. Biology, 11(5), 657. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11050657 Molnar, D., Romanov, R. & Milić, Z. (2024). The Efects of Adapted Physical Exercise on Gross Motor Function and Motor Abilities in Child with Multiple Disabilities. Sport Science and Health, 14(2), 173-178. https://doi.org/10.7251/SSH2402173M Morales, J., Pierantozzi, E., Fukuda, D. H., Garcia, V., Guerra-Balic, M., Sevilla-Sánchez, M., & Carballeira, E. (2022). Improving motor skills and psychosocial behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder through an adapted judo program. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1067310. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1067310 Pan, C. Y., Chu, C. H., Tsai, C. L., Sung, M. C., Huang, C. Y., & Ma, W. Y. (2017). The impacts of physical activity intervention on physical and cognitive outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism, 21(2), 190–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316633562 Piccolo, A., Raciti, C., Di Cara, M., Portaro, S., Muratore, R., De Domenico, C., et al.. (2025). Motor coordination assessment in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Diagnostics, 15(17), 2118. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics15172118 Pokoski, O. M., Furnier, S. M., Gangnon, R. E., Howerton, E. M., Kirby, A. V., Protho, T., et al.. (2025). Prevalence of motor milestone delays in autistic children. JAMA Pediatrics, 179(7). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2025.0216 Rafie, F., Ghasemi, A., Zamani Jam, A., & Jalali, S. (2017). Effect of exercise intervention on perceptual-motor skills in adolescents with autism. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 57(1-2), 53-59. https://doi.org/10.23736/s0022-4707.16.05919-3 Salvador-Garcia, C., Chiva-Bartoll, O., Belaire-Meliá, A., & Valverde-Esteve, T. (2022). Motor performance in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder: Effects of an extracurricular physical education program and socio-ecological correlates. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 34(2), 355-372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-021-09802-z Sarabzadeh, M., Azari, B. B., & Helalizadeh, M. (2019). The effect of six weeks of Tai Chi Chuan training on motor skills of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 23(2), 284-290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2019.01.007 Skowroński, W., Horvat, M., Nocera, J., Roswal, G., & Croce, R. (2009). Eurofit special: European fitness battery score variation among individuals with intellectual disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 26(1), 54-67. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.26.1.54 Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., & Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467-473. https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850 Ulrich, D. A. (2013). The test of gross motor development-3 (TGMD-3): Administration, scoring, and international norms. Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 24(2), 27-33. Walters, G. W., Cooper, S., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., Boat, R., Vagnetti, R., et al.. (2025). Normative percentile values for the TGMD-3 for Italian children aged 3-11+ years. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 28, 398-407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2024.12.013 Wang, Q., Jia, S., Ding, F., Wang, X., Si, Y., Wang, X., & Sun, J. (2025). Effect of fundamental movement skills practice on executive function and social interaction ability in children with moderate autism: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 25(1), 354. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-025-05107-2 Wen, L., & Wu, Z. (2025). The impact of sensory integration-based sports training on motor and social skill development in children with autism spectrum disorder. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 19974. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-05393-3 World Health Organization. (1978). International classification of diseases (9th rev.). World Health Organization. World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. World Health Organization. World Health Organization. (2019). International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th rev.). https://icd.who.int/
